Reflections from our Culture Café on 22 February 2025.
Carnival is a global celebration with deep historical and cultural roots, and it’s observed in various forms across many countries. While its origins are often linked to Roman Catholic traditions preceding Lent, today, it’s a festive occasion celebrated by diverse communities around the world, often featuring parades, costumes, music, dancing, and feasting.
Why Do We Wear Fancy Dresses and Disguise Ourselves During Carnival?
Wearing costumes and masks during Carnival has deep historical roots, blending pagan traditions, medieval European customs, and African influences. The main reasons for dressing up and disguising ourselves include:
- Freedom & Equality – Masks and disguises remove social barriers, allowing people of all classes to mix freely. In historical Venice, for example, nobles and commoners could interact without restrictions while wearing masks.
- Rebellion & Celebration – In many societies, Carnival was a time to break social norms before the restrictions of Lent. Wearing elaborate costumes and disguises gave people the freedom to act outside their usual roles.
- Spiritual & Religious Roots – Many costumes represent spirits, animals, or mythical beings, reflecting ancient rituals where dressing up was believed to ward off evil or honor deities.
- African & Indigenous Influences – Enslaved Africans in the Caribbean incorporated their own traditions of masking and masquerade into Carnival, adding vibrant colors, elaborate headdresses, and symbolic costumes.
Prehistoric and Ancient Precursors to Carnival Traditions a Longstanding Cultural Pattern
- Sumerian Rites of Renewal and Chaos (4500–4000 BCE)
In the earliest Sumerian societies, rites of renewal and ritual chaos played a crucial role in maintaining cosmic balance. These prehistoric rituals were deeply embedded in agricultural cycles, divine kingship, and the struggle between order and chaos—a theme that would later define Mesopotamian mythology and religious practice.
Role Reversal and Ritual Chaos
Sumerian renewal rites often involved temporary social inversions, where hierarchies were reversed, rules were suspended, and chaos was embraced before order was ritually restored. These acts served as a controlled way for society to release tension, reinforcing the legitimacy of the ruling order once normalcy was reinstated.
King-for-a-Day Rituals: A common practice in later periods (possibly with earlier roots) involved appointing a mock king—a low-ranking person or even a prisoner—who was given royal status and privileges for a brief period before being executed or returned to their original status.
Sacred Feasting and Drunkenness: Temporary anarchy was encouraged through public feasts, excessive drinking, and carnival-like behaviour, symbolizing the dissolution of social order before its necessary restoration.
Mock Battles: Ritualized combat, where groups reenacted battles between forces of chaos and order, mirrored Sumerian myths where gods like Enlil or Marduk subdued primordial chaos to establish cosmic harmony.
New Year Festival and the Victory of Order
One of the most significant renewal rites evolved into the Akitu Festival, celebrated at the New Year (near the spring equinox). Though more developed in later periods (c. 3rd millennium BCE), its roots likely trace back to earlier Sumerian agricultural societies.
The festival re-enacted the primordial battle between chaos and order, linking it to the seasonal renewal of crops and kingship legitimacy.
The king underwent a ritual humiliation, where he was stripped of his regalia and publicly slapped by a high priest, signifying the temporary breakdown of royal power before being reaffirmed.
The return of order was marked by processions, recitations of creation myths, and symbolic acts that reestablished cosmic and social stability.
Mythological Foundations
These rituals were closely tied to Sumerian creation myths, particularly those involving Enlil, the storm god, or later Marduk, who brought order by defeating primordial forces of chaos (like Tiamat in the Babylonian tradition).
The cycle of disorder followed by renewal reflected broader Sumerian beliefs about the fragility of civilization and the constant need to reinforce divine and political structures.
Historical Continuity: From Sumer to Carnival
The Sumerian traditions evolved into later Mesopotamian, Greco-Roman, and medieval European rituals:
The Sumerian rites of chaos and renewal established a deep cultural and religious pattern that reappeared throughout history. While Carnival evolved under Christian influence, its roots lie in much older pagan, agricultural, and cosmic renewal traditions—tracing back, in part, to the Sumerians
Babylonian Akitu Festival (c. 2000 BCE–500 BCE)
Retained the mock king tradition, with the real king humiliated before reasserting power.
Marked the New Year and seasonal renewal, much like Carnival before Lent.
Roman Saturnalia (c. 200 BCE–400 CE)
Featured role reversals (masters served slaves).
Included feasting, gift-giving, and temporary disorder.
Inspired later medieval Feast of Fools and Carnival traditions.
Medieval & Renaissance Carnivals (c. 1100–1700 CE)
Directly inherited Saturnalian traditions.
Emphasized temporary liberation from strict social rules before the penitential season of Lent.
Religious and Cross-Cultural Syncretism
Carnival is a great example of cultural blending, where African, European, and Indigenous traditions mixed to create the vibrant festival we know today. The African influence on Carnival is especially strong in places with a history of the transatlantic slave trade. Enslaved Africans brought their rich traditions of music, dance, and masquerade, which combined with European pre-Lenten celebrations.
African Influence
African traditions shaped Carnival celebrations in Brazil, Trinidad & Tobago, Haiti, and New Orleans. These influences can be seen in the music, colorful costumes, and performances.
- Use of Colors
In many African cultures, colors have deep meanings, which carried over into Carnival:
- Red: Represents power, strength, and ancestral spirits. Many costumes feature red to honor African warrior traditions.
- Gold/Yellow: Symbolizes wealth, divinity, and prosperity, reflecting African royal traditions.
- Green: Associated with fertility, growth, and connection to nature.
- Blue and White: Represent purity, water deities (such as Yemanjá, the Yoruba goddess of the sea), and protection.
- Head Decorations & Masquerade
The tradition of masks and elaborate headdresses in African cultures carried over into Carnival:
This section refers to how African traditions of wearing masks and elaborate headpieces were carried over into Carnival celebrations in the Caribbean and the Americas. In many African cultures, masks and headdresses are worn during ceremonies, rituals, and festivals to connect with spirits, honor ancestors, or symbolize social status. These traditions continued in Carnival, influencing the costumes and performances seen today.
Here’s what each example means:
- Junkanoo (Bahamas, Jamaica)
Junkanoo is a street parade with African roots, featuring performers in large, colorful headdresses decorated with feathers, mirrors, and bright patterns.
These headdresses are similar to African ceremonial masks, which were traditionally used in rituals to honor spirits and ancestors.
The parade includes drumming and dancing, reflecting the strong African influence in the Caribbean.
- Moko Jumbie (Trinidad, St. Kitts, US Virgin Islands)
Moko Jumbies are stilt-walkers who perform during Carnival and other celebrations.
The tradition comes from West African spiritual practices, where stilt-walkers represented powerful ancestral spirits who watched over and protected the community.
The word “Moko” may be linked to an African deity, while “Jumbie” is a Caribbean term for a ghost or spirit.
Today, Moko Jumbies wear tall, eye-catching costumes and dance high above the crowd, symbolizing wisdom, protection, and strength.
- Brazil’s Baianas (Bahia, Brazil)
The Baianas are women dressed in white lace headwraps and flowing dresses, inspired by traditional clothing worn by Yoruba priestesses in West Africa.
They play an important role in Candomblé, an Afro-Brazilian religion that blends African spiritual beliefs with Catholic influences.
The white clothing symbolizes purity and respect for the Orixás (African deities), especially Yemanjá, the goddess of the sea.
During Carnival, Baianas dance gracefully in their traditional attire, honoring African heritage and spiritual traditions.
Overall Significance
These head decorations and masquerade traditions in Carnival come from African customs of wearing masks, stilt-walking, and dressing in elaborate outfits for spiritual and cultural purposes. They are not just for entertainment but carry deep meanings tied to ancestry, protection, and religious practices.
The Maltese Historical Carnival Tradition
Malta’s Carnival – Il-Karnival ta’ Malta – is one of the oldest and most vibrant in the Mediterranean, evolving over centuries from elite court celebrations to a festival of public satire and revelry. While Valletta hosts the most extravagant processions, the Nadur Carnival in Gozo stands out as a more chaotic, spontaneous, and surreal version of the tradition.
Malta’s Carnival has a long and vibrant history, with roots stretching back to the 15th century, when it was first recorded under the rule of the Knights of St. John (1530–1798). However, its traditions—especially those involving masked revelry, role reversals, and social satire—may link back to even earlier Mediterranean and European influences, including Roman Saturnalia and Sicilian Carnival customs.
The Nadur Carnival: A Darker, Spontaneous Celebration
The Nadur Carnival in Gozo is unlike the structured Valletta Carnival—it is more raw, grotesque, and anonymous, featuring eerie and bizarre costumes.
Key Characteristics of Nadur Carnival
- Spontaneity: Unlike the organized floats in Valletta, Nadur’s Carnival is not officially planned—anyone can dress up, walk the streets, and participate.
- Grotesque Masks & Surreal Costumes: Participants wear horrific, exaggerated masks (ħamalli) depicting politicians, demons, zombies, and even absurd caricatures of Maltese society.
- Dark Humor & Satire: Many costumes feature macabre humor, mocking current events, scandals, and controversial figures.
- Silent Parade: Unlike Valletta’s loud, music-filled processions, Nadur’s streets fill with costumed figures who remain eerily silent, adding to the surreal atmosphere.
The Nadur Carnival has been compared to medieval “Feast of Fools” tradition it retains the spirit of ancient Carnivals, where anonymity and role-reversal allowed people to mock authority and societal norms without consequence.
Origins and Early Traditions (Pre-1530s)
- Before the arrival of the Knights of St. John, Malta’s population followed Mediterranean and Sicilian customs, where pre-Lenten festivities included feasting, costumes, and merriment.
- The tradition was linked to Catholicism—Carnival marked the last chance to indulge before the fasting period of Lent.
The Knights of St. John & the Evolution of Carnival (1530–1798)
Under the Knights of St. John, Carnival became an extravagant celebration—but it also sparked controversy due to its mix of elite parades and lower-class anarchy.
- Grand Master Piero de Ponte (1535) first formally regulated Carnival, allowing festivities but imposing some control.
- Mock Battles (Battaglie di Carnevale): Knights participated in staged battles, often involving oranges, eggs, and even live animals.
- Cross-Dressing & Role Reversal: Much like in Saturnalia and medieval European Carnival, commoners and nobles alike dressed in exaggerated costumes, often switching roles to mock authority.
- Excessive Feasting & Bacchanalian Elements: Food played a major role, especially Mqaret (date pastries), Prinjolata (a towering almond cake), and traditional meats.
- Masked Satire & Political Humor: Participants wore grotesque masks (ħamalli) and performed satirical plays, sometimes mocking the Knights themselves.
The Catholic Church and some Grand Masters frequently tried to suppress the more disorderly aspects of Carnival, with mixed success.
- Grand Master Manuel Pinto da Fonseca (1740–1773) was a major supporter of Carnival, allowing more extravagant masked balls and theatrical performances.
- However, others, like Grand Master De Rohan (1775), imposed stricter rules to limit excessive drunkenness and disorder.
Carnival Under the French & British (1798–1964)
- French Rule (1798–1800): The brief Napoleonic occupation saw Carnival restricted, as the French administration discouraged public disorder.
- British Rule (1800–1964): The British, while keeping Carnival alive, regulated it more strictly—though it remained a major festival, featuring:
- Large floats & satirical puppets, a tradition that continues today.
- Il-Kukkanja (a greasy pole-climbing contest with prizes at the top).
- Horse & donkey races along Strada Reale (Republic Street, Valletta).
- Masked dances and secret parties, often held in the Three Cities.
During World War II, Carnival was halted due to bombings but resumed post-war, with even more elaborate floats and processions.
Modern Maltese Carnival (1964–Present)
- Today, Carnival remains one of Malta’s biggest festivals, centered in Valletta, Floriana, and Nadur (Gozo).
- It still features:
Massive, brightly colored floats with satirical themes.
Masked dancers and costumed parades.
The Nadur Carnival, known for its spontaneous and grotesque masks, keeping the medieval spirit of Carnival alive.
Loud music, confetti, and fireworks, marking a shift from historical satire to modern entertainment.
Connections to Ancient Traditions
The role reversals, satire, and chaos seen in Maltese Carnival today share deep similarities with Sumerian and ancient Mediterranean renewal rituals, including:
Sumerian New Year chaos rites (mock rulers, feasting).
Roman Saturnalia (role reversals, disorder, masked revelry).
Medieval European Carnival traditions (cross-dressing, parodies of authority).
Despite attempts by religious and political authorities over the centuries to control or suppress its excesses, Carnival in Malta has endured as a celebration of freedom, satire, and joyous rebellion against hierarchy—at least for a few days each year.
While Carnival has been celebrated in Malta for centuries, certain years stand out due to scandals, riots, or bizarre events.
Notable Moments in Maltese Carnival History:
- The “Great Carnival Ban” (1639)
Grand Master Juan de Lascaris banned women from wearing masks during Carnival, fearing that disguise led to scandalous behavior.
This law, however, only fueled more rebellious partying.
- 1740: The “Carnival Riots” of Pinto’s Era
Under Grand Master Manuel Pinto da Fonseca, Carnival became so excessive that violent clashes broke out between rival groups.
Instead of banning it, Pinto allowed even bigger celebrations, leading to more extravagant masks and feasts.
- The 1823 Stampede Tragedy
During British rule, a tragic event occurred when crowds gathered at the Valletta Grand Harbour to receive free bread as part of a Carnival charity tradition.
The rush led to a stampede, causing over 100 deaths. After this, authorities began to tighten control over Carnival events, making them safer but less chaotic.
- World War II: The Carnival That Never Happened (1942)
Due to heavy bombings, Carnival was canceled during WWII, but many Maltese still celebrated in underground shelters.
- Recent Controversies (2000s–Today)
Some Carnival floats and costumes have caused controversy, especially when political figures or religious symbols are mocked.
In 2019, a float depicting a caricature of Donald Trump caused diplomatic complaints!